It's a leaf, no it's a stick, no it's a bug...

Lots of funny and strange critters in the forest. I have had a couple of days of starts and stops. Thursday I spent most of the morning searching shops in town for a generator only to find that there are none to be had this trip for some strange reason. So, Thursday afternoon I was troubleshooting the batteries for the equipment. While the instrument has batteries (phew), they don't last very long (~1 hr), so I have to time my sampling to catch the right part of the day. I did that yesterday morning only to find I was having additional problems, so yet another troubleshooting session at midday. Luckily by afternoon everything was working fine, so with a freshly charged instrument I got a good hour of field sampling in. I have another day of sampling today, and then back to Campinas to start some data analysis.

Back to Rio Branco

I returned to Rio Branco yesterday. Given that the fire was delayed during our last visit, we were only able to gather one day of post-burn data on soil mercury emissions. We realized it would be great to get additional post-burn data and do some time-course comparisons - i.e. how do post burn emissions change with time. So I will be gathering over the next few days to compare soil mercury emissions at this point - two-months after the burn - to those I measured the day after the fire.

I have paired up with a few other researchers who have returned to the site to measure the amount of biomass remaining on the plot. Tree biomass was measured pre-burn, and with the measurements they are taking this week of post-burn biomass, they can calculate the amount of biomass that was actually burned, and use this when calculating at carbon and other pollutant releases from the fire. The only catch is that today is Thanksgiving in the U.S., but obviously not in Brazil - so I will be measuring mercury rather than eating turkey :-)

Public Outreach

We had some mention in the press recently. Globo published a short article about the broader project and produced a short video of the burn.

News Article - Controlled Burn in the Amazon for Scientific Research

Data, data everywhere...

I am just starting to sort through the data we collected in Rio Branco. 24 pages of notes like this listing conditions during field monitoring of soil mercury emissions at various sites, during different times of day, and before/after the fire (my field notebook still smells like smoke). Over the next few weeks I hope to match the conditions recorded in the notebook with the results recorded by our instrument to get a sense of soil mercury emissions pre- vs. post-burn. The one tricky thing is the instrument we were using. The loaner we managed to scrounge up at the last minute had its problems. Unfortunately the baseline on the instrument continued to drift downward over the course of each day.
The peaks and valleys in this data represent mercury concentrations going into and out of our chamber, which allows me to calculate the emissions of mercury from the soil surface. However, the slow downward trend in the data, emphasized by the blackline, is due to instrument drift. I should be able to subtract that out, but I will have to get one of my statistics friends involved just to be safe.

Leaving Rio Branco

We left Rio Branco on Saturday. It was a great trip and yet it was good to come home. I hadn't seen my family for two weeks, and I got a big warm welcome from my kids. The work in Rio Branco was hard, and everyone was a bit exhausted by the end. It took several days to wash off the salt, dirt, and sunscreen. But I will miss the city.

Even more now that I have had a chance to get to know the area, it feels that we were on the edge of civilization, or at least on the edge of developed civilization as we have come to expect. Staying in the city center was a bit disorienting as it is highly developed and not dissimilar from a small-sized American city - lots of restaurants, small shops, bars, civic buildings, etc. Yet just outside of the center the area transitions quickly.

I went for an early morning run on my last day into some of the outskirts of the neighborhood, just 5 or so minutes from our hotel. At one point I found myself along a dirt path running on a hillside through a cluster of small houses. Each was the size of a large living room in the US, with only the bare necessities - a bit of electricity and minimal plumbing. I received a few long stares as I ran through the area. At first, I was a little concerned, but I eventually realized that the stares were more because I was a peculiar novelty in the area.

Most people were beginning their chores as I ran by. Men tinkering with bicycles or other things that needed to be fixed, children playing, and women sweeping in the hours before the hot midday sun. Brazilians have an interesting fascination with cleanliness. Interesting because the climate alternates between extremely dry periods that cause dirt to blow in large clouds, and torrential rains that cause rivers of mud to cascade by. Yet they were out sweeping, and not only their houses, but also the dirt paths in front of their houses to remove litter or leaves that had blown in during the night. There was a curious tranquility to the area that is hard to describe.

After the Burn

While some of the researchers' work was completed yesterday, many of us spent an additional day working at the site doing post-burn sampling. I and my colleague Anne hope to understand the impact of deforestation on the release of mercury to the atmosphere, so it was critical to sample before, during, and especially after the burn to understand how the balance of mercury in the ecosystem has changed. It is a bit early to tell, but our data suggests that deforestation is a big source of mercury to the atmosphere.

The post-burn site is really interesting, most areas are heavily burned with only ash remaining on the ground, but some are largely untouched. What surprised me yesterday was how slowly the fire progressed through the site - it took over an hour to work through the small area we had cleared. What is also surprising is how much biomass remains. Dried leaves, brush, and small branches were by and large completely burned, but most of the large tree trunks remain on the site - though most are scorched. While the fire is now out, some areas of the site are still smoldering as you can see in the background above, and these areas are still very hot. Luckily the area I am working in burned quickly and relatively completely yesterday, so it had cooled off by today - it was only a couple of degrees hotter than the 100 or so that the sun supplied.

Ignition

After several anxious days the weather conditions turned out near perfect today. Skies were clear with only a slight breeze blowing away from the staging area toward the heart of our plot. There were lots of last minute preparations. Several researchers hitched a ride on a military helicopter to measure the spread and intensity of the fire. Several gathered around a station that was pulling smoke and gases from the tower at the center of the fire. Several individuals worked to measure the rate of progression of the fire through the understory. My colleague Anne and I sampled particulate matter to later analyze for mercury and we sampled airborne mercury levels for the first part of the fire. It was really incredible to see after so much work and effort went into this project.

Fingers Crossed

There was a big "meeting of the minds" this morning to discuss the fate of our research. The weather was kind to us yesterday - after the morning rain which, no pun intended, washed out our burn, the sun came out and began to dry things off. This morning we studied regional meteorological reports, rescheduled the firefighters to be on site for tomorrow, rebooked the military helicopter that is on loan to take aerial photos, and shifted all of our schedules for a burn tomorrow at 1 PM. Yet it all comes down to luck, or perhaps fate, so we will be sleeping with our fingers and toes crossed tonight hoping for a dry evening.

We worked at the forest late yesterday evening, taking additional control samples and making sure we have everything we need before the burn. As the sun sets, the forest begins to erupt in a symphony of insects, birds, and other animals singing to us. It is both a bit eerie and extremely beautiful at the same time. This recording does not do it justice, but it gives you a taste of what we hear.

The Forest at Night

Chuva!

The best laid schemes of mice and men go oft awry. 18 researchers, students, and others with hundreds of hours and countless dollars invested in this experiment and it rains. Just a bit of rain, 30 short minutes at about 9:30 this morning. But enough to soak the forest and put our experiment on hold. At this point the weather in the coming days is unclear. Unfortunately it can be difficult to predict weather in this remote corner of Brazil, and what's more, it can change from hour to hour. This morning our fate looked grim, the forecast was for rain all week and it looked like we might complete our time here without a chance to burn the plot. But our luck may be changing. It cleared this afternoon and the sun is baking the forest. If this keeps up through tomorrow, we may be able to carry out the burn on Thursday. If not, we have covered a very small plot with a tarp where I and one other researcher may be able to carry out some limited experiments. However, most of the researchers may be delayed in their work until next year when the dry season returns. It is frustrating, but everyone is trying to stay optimistic. Of course, while the rain throws a kink in our plans, it is welcome by other residents of the forest...

Before the Burn

The treatment phase of this grand experiment begins tomorrow when someone will light a match and start a fire that will burn through the 4 hectare plot of forest that we have been studying. We spent today scrambling around to make sure we have all of the control measurements that we need to compare to the post-fire period. The days are long and hard, but rewarding. Though we are in the Amazon, working in the forest is not bad. It has only rained a bit, so the humidity is not particularly high and the shade from the trees keeps the temperatures at 85-90 F. However, working in the cleared part of the forest can be scorching. We are only about 10 degrees south of the equator, so the sun is stronger than I have ever felt. I worked long August days in Tennessee a few years back, and this makes TN feel like Vermont. Temperatures in the open area can easily reach, or exceed, 100 F. So, it's key to use gobs of strong sunscreen and drink copious amounts of water. By the end of the day, you can find a ring of salt around your collar from the sweat that pours out. But I can't complain, it has been great fun and the work is really rewarding. Tomorrow should be very interesting as we will get to see the fire at work.

Good Sampling Days

We've had lots of hiccups this week. Equipment that never arrived, other items that arrived broken, and still others that work but have required a lot of trouble shooting to get them working well. However, I finally had two very long, exhausting, but excellent days of sampling yesterday and today. Did some great comparisons of an intact forest to the cut forest and we are seeing much higher mercury emissions from the deforested area compared to the intact forest. The burn is scheduled for Tuesday, so it will be interesting to see how that affects the process. Luckily the trip is not all work, and it has been great fun getting to know the other researchers, and other residents of the forest...

Research Team Growing

Our research team has been growing over the past few days as more scientists arrive to study the controlled burn that will occur on Tuesday. This is an international project, with researchers from Brazil, the U.S., Canada. France, and Holland participating to study the effects of fire on the Amazon forest. Each group will do something a bit different, but all contribute to the larger effort of understanding the impacts and consequences of deforestation via burning on the environment. There are researchers who will be studying carbon emissions, others who study the progression of the fire through the forest, still others studying the release of particulate matter and gaseous pollutants from the burn, my colleague who will be studying the release of mercury from the fire itself, and I will be looking at the impact of fire on emissions of mercury from soil pre- and post-burn. What I now understand is that this is part of a very big, and very long effort to understand, and reduce deforestation in the Amazon. Several researchers in this group have been at this type of work for almost 20 years now. Every year they travel to a different part of the Amazon, some more remote than others, to study the progression of deforestation.

Yesterday we worked to measure background conditions on the plot to establish a baseline for our measurements. There was a group who installed particulate filters to establish baseline levels of those pollutants. Another group that worked to raise a small metal tower in the center of the plot where a number of instruments will be installed. There were several people who worked to measure the diameter and height of trees on the site to estimate the total biomass that will be burned. A generator was brought to the site to power some of the equipment that will be used. We collected samples of litterfall and fresh leaves that will be brought back to the lab and analyzed for mercury concentrations. And in the afternoon, after the generator was installed, I set up my equipment to begin taking some of my first background measurements on the site. Unfortunately, about 5 minutes later it rained for the first time since we've been here :-0, so I will try again today.

The Edge of Civilization

Rio Branco is an interesting place. It feels a bit as if you are on the edge of Brazilian civilization. The town is a relatively industrial - it is the last stop before things go into the Amazon, and one of the first stops when they leave the Amazon and are processed for shipping elsewhere. So there are big trucks everywhere. Despite this, the average income is relatively low, and only the wealthiest can afford cars. Most residents don't own cars and they commute in any way they can. Bikes are everywhere, not simply in the city on the sidewalks, but in the outskirts of town dozens of people can be seen biking for miles on the highways to and from work. Motorcycles, which are exceptionally popular everywhere in Brazil, are almost overwhelming in Rio Branco. At least a dozen will inch past you at a red light, and when the light turns green it looks a bit like a motocross race starting.

Despite the fact that we are in the rainforest, it's been surprisingly dry since we arrived. With temperatures near 100 and the sun in full force, things dry out quickly. The soil here is predominantly red clay and sand, and when it dries out, it begins to drift. It creeps into your boots, gets in your pockets, and slips under your fingers nails. You can almost taste it in the air as everything has a bit of a reddish tinge from it. Of course this makes for some spectacular sunsets.

In the Jungle

Arrived in Rio Branco in Acre about 2 AM on Tuesday. The humidity hits you as soon as you walk off the plane, but since it was the middle of the night and not especially hot, it was a welcome break from the dry climate in Sao Paulo. The field station we are working at is about 20 kilometers outside of the city and run by EMBRAPA, the federal agricultural agency, and the site is a few kilometers into the forest. Great labs, easy access, all in all a pretty easy place to work. Anne, my host, had peppered us with stories of worms that bore through the soles of your feet and rats rummaging along your bedside - this is a far cry from that, though I did find the molted skin of a pretty large snake on our trail yesterday. Walked into the forest to check out the plot they will be burning next week, very cool. Unfortunately having some problems calibrating my equipment, hopefully will solve those today and post more later.

Leaving for Rio Branco

Off to Rio Branco today. Exciting and a bit scary. If the mosquitoes or the weather don't get me, the Mapinguari may.

Jaunt to Rio

Just got back from a day-trip to Rio de Janeiro. It appears that my equipment may have finally arrived in Brazil; however, it is stuck in customs indefinitely. My host, Anne, had the great idea to borrow a piece of equipment from some researchers in Rio, so I flew there yesterday morning, picked it up, and flew back yesterday evening. As a scientist, you get used to working on the fly as you never know what is going to happen next. However, Brazilians seem to be particularly used to this as they have the added uncertainty of government regulations and approval to navigate.

Research and Brazil

It has been an interesting adventure so far. On one hand, I have been really impressed with the advanced state of science in Brazil. As I understand it, the State of Sao Paulo is an especially good place to conduct research as the State constitution guarantees that 1% of the budget go towards research. One of the researchers here recently said that the amount of money that Sao Paulo invests in research is equivalent to the amount that the Brazilian federal government invests in the remaining 25 states. So, life is good as a scientist in Sao Paulo.

One the other hand, I have also been impressed at the amount of red tape there exists in the country. We began the process of importing my research equipment back in April and it has still not arrived. Last week we had the startling news that all of the major equipment was approved for importation, but none of the electrical cords, data wires, or tubes were approved :-0. We finally resolved this situation and the equipment was picked up from NYC on Friday - more than 4 months after we started the paperwork. My host suggests that this is partially due to the government's suspicion of developed countries using developing countries like Brazil as a dumping ground for their defunct equipment and garbage. Thus, any item that is not brand new is treated with suspicion. That said, even she is started at the amount of time this has taken.


On Monday 9/19 we leave for Rio Branco to do our field research. As you can see, it doesn't seem like one of the most welcoming places on the planet to live. On top of the weather, there seems to be a nagging little problem called malaria. This is a strange issue, as an American coming down I was told at every turn that I would need to take a battery of malarial prophylaxis drugs to avoid contracting the nasty little parasite. However, the Brazilians researchers state that the anti-malarial drugs have really nasty side-effects, and that the risk of contracting malaria is far smaller than the risk of side effects. S0, uniformly they have said that they do not take them when traveling to the Amazon. When in Brazil ....

Sabbatical Research

In May of 2010 I began to make plans for a sabbatical leave. Since our children our young, my wife and I decided that it was a good time to travel and so I began to send out inquiries far and wide. Luckily, one letter I sent was to Anne Helene Fostier at the University of Campinas in Campinas, Brazil. Anne and I have overlapping interests in soil mercury chemistry, and after a few exchanges we had worked up an idea to study the effect of deforestation on soil mercury emissions in the Brazilian Amazon. Unfortunately, there is a legacy of mercury pollution in some areas of the Amazon due to Artisnal gold-mining operations in which liquid mercury was used to extract traces of gold from sediment, and then the mercury was boiled off without control leaving behind small flakes of gold. Intact forests, and soils within those forests, can serve as a sink for atmospheric mercury, reducing its movement in the environment and subsequent exposure of nearby populations. However, deforestation that is resulting from agricultural development in the Amazon releases mercury from these forests, and this may result in long-term degradation of soils and further release of Hg from these soils. Our plan is to travel into the Amazon in late September to study this process.

I arrived in Campinas, Brazil with my family just over two weeks ago (8 Aug) and I have to admit I had little understanding of the scientific enterprise in Brazil before arriving. I have been delighted and impressed with things so far. Unicamp has an excellent reputation in the sciences and probably has the stature of a CalTech-type institution in the States. The campus is circular in nature, with several concentric circles of roads and buildings. The main science institutes (Chemistry, Physics, Biology, Geosciences) are all located on the innermost concentric circle, at the heart of the University itself. These Institutes are well-funded by various state and federal agencies including FAPESP (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo), CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior), and other organizations. And as a result, the technology in place is impressive. From atomic absorption spectrometers, to GC, MS, LC, electron microscopy, and just about every type of Inductively Coupled Plasma spectrometer one can think of, they all are available at the University. I am still getting to know the place, but am excited to learn my way around.

Global Hg - Halifax 2011

Had a great time at the Global Hg conference in Halifax, definitely some very interesting things going on in the mercury world.

Mercury 2011

Busily preparing for the 10th International Conference on Mercury as a Global Pollutant in Halifax in late July. We have three presentations this year:

• Ho, Anthony & Carpi "Mechanisms of the Reduction of Divalent Mercury;"
• Gittings, Michael & Carpi "Soil Mercury Fluxes Pre- and Post-Clearing of a Forested Area in Upstate New York;"
  
• Hui, Christina & Carpi "Mercury Emissions from Soil Samples in Response to Simulated Precipitation Events."

Should be a great time.